Guia+IV+I+Semestre+Derecho

** Unan- León ** ** Unit 4: Today´s Trends **
 * Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Nicaragua **
 * I. Grammar **
 * A. Quantity expressions **
 * 1. **** @http://www.learn4good.com/languages/evrd_grammar/quantifiers_quiz.htm **
 * 2. **** http://www.learn4good.com/languages/evrd_grammar/quantifiers_quiz2.php **
 * B. Giving advice with ought to, and had better. **
 * 1. **** @http://web2.uvcs.uvic.ca/elc/studyzone/330/grammar/330-modals-advice1.htm **
 * 2. @http://flang1.kendall.mdc.edu/acts/4/436/L436act3lec3.htm **
 * 3. @http://web2.uvcs.uvic.ca/elc/StudyZone/330/grammar/330-modals-advice1.htm **

**Instructions: Read the article below and answer the questions that follow. ** 1. Explain the different types of laws available in the United States? Explain what each one of them consist of and who has the power to create them. 2**.** How is the procedural law divided into? Explain what do they consist of. 3. What encompasses the substantive law? Explain 4. What does the criminal law involves? 6. What does the contract law involves? Provide examples. 7. How does the tort law works? What offenses does this law cover? Provide examples. **__Levels of law __** **Federal law ** originates with the Constitution, which gives Congress the power to enact [|statutes]  for certain limited purposes like regulating [|interstate commerce] . Nearly all statutes have been codified in the [|United States Code] . Many statutes give <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none;">[|executive branch] <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> agencies the power to create <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none;">[|regulations] <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;">, which are published in the <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none;">[|Federal Register] <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> and codified into the <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none;">[|Code of Federal Regulations] <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;">. Regulations generally also carry the <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none;">[|force of law] <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> under the [|//Chevron//]<span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none;">[| doctrine] <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;">. Many lawsuits turn on the meaning of a federal statute or regulation, and judicial interpretations of such meaning carry legal force under the principle of <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none;">[|stare decisis] <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;">. <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;">The fifty American states are separate <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none;">[|sovereigns] <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> with their own <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none;">[|state constitutions] <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;">, <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none;">[|state governments] <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;">, and <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none;">[|state courts] <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> (including <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none;">[|state supreme courts] <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;">). [|[47]]<span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> They retain <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none;">[|plenary power] <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> to make laws covering anything not preempted by the federal Constitution, federal statutes, or international treaties ratified by the federal Senate. Normally, state supreme courts are the final interpreters of state constitutions and state law, unless their interpretation itself presents a federal issue, in which case a decision may be appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court by way of a petition for writ of <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none;">[|certiorari] <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;">. [|[48]] <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Law affects every aspect of American life, including <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none;">[|parking lots] <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;">. Note the citations to statutes on the sign. <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;">States have delegated lawmaking powers to thousands of <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none;">[|agencies] <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;">, <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none;">[|townships] <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;">, <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none;">[|counties] <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;">, <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none;">[|cities] <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;">, and <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none;">[|special districts] <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;">. And all the state constitutions, statutes and regulations (as well as all the ordinances and regulations promulgated by local entities) are subject to judicial interpretation like their federal counterparts. [|[53]] <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;">It is common for residents of major <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none;">[|U.S. metropolitan areas] <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> to live under six or more layers of special districts as well as a town or city, and a county or township (in addition to the federal and state governments). [|[54]]<span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> Thus, at any given time, the average American citizen is subject to the rules and regulations of several dozen different agencies at the federal, state, and local levels, depending upon one's current location and behavior. **<span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Types of law ** <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-align: justify;">Traditionally, lawyers distinguish between procedural law (which controls the procedure followed by courts and parties to legal cases) and substantive law (which is what most people think of as law). In turn, procedural law is divided into criminal procedure and civil procedure. **<span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;">a) ****<span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Criminal procedure ** <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;">The law of <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none;">[|criminal procedure] <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> in the United States consists of a massive overlay of federal constitutional case law interwoven with the federal and state statutes that actually provide the foundation for the creation and operation of law enforcement agencies and prison systems as well as the proceedings in criminal trials. Due to the perennial inability of legislatures in the U.S. to enact statutes that would actually force law enforcement officers to respect the constitutional rights of criminal suspects and convicts, the federal judiciary gradually developed the <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none;">[|exclusionary rule] <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> as a method to enforce such rights. In turn, the exclusionary rule spawned a family of judge-made remedies for the abuse of law enforcement powers, of which the most famous is the <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none;">[|Miranda warning] <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;">. The writ of [|//habeas corpus//]<span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> is often used by suspects and convicts to challenge their detention, while the <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none;">[|Civil Rights Act of 1871] <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> and [|//Bivens//]<span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> actions are used by suspects to recover tort damages for police brutality. **<span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;">b) ****<span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Civil procedure ** <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;">The law of <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none;">[|civil procedure] <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> governs process in all judicial proceedings involving lawsuits between private parties. Traditional common law <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none;">[|pleading] <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> was replaced by code pleading in 24 states after New York enacted the <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none;">[|Field Code] <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> in 1850, and code pleading in turn was subsequently replaced again in most states by modern notice pleading during the 20th century. The old English division between <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none;">[|common law] <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> and <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none;">[|equity] <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> courts was abolished in the federal courts by the adoption of the <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none;">[|Federal Rules of Civil Procedure] <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> in 1938; it has also been independently abolished by legislative acts in nearly all states. The <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none;">[|Delaware Court of Chancery] <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> is the most prominent of the small number of remaining equity courts. <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-align: justify;">35 states have adopted rules of civil procedure closely modeled after the FRCP (including rule numbers). However, in doing so, they had to make some modifications to account for the fact that state courts have broad general jurisdiction while federal courts have relatively limited jurisdiction. <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;">New York, Illinois, and California are the most significant states that have not adopted the FRCP. Furthermore, both states continue to maintain their civil procedure laws in the form of codified statutes enacted by the state legislature, as opposed to court rules promulgated by the state supreme court, on the ground that the latter are undemocratic. But certain key portions of their civil procedure laws have been modified by their legislatures to bring them closer to federal civil procedure. [|[55]] <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Generally, American civil procedure has several notable features, including extensive pretrial <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none;">[|discovery] <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;">, heavy reliance on live testimony obtained at <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none;">[|deposition] <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> or elicited in front of a <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none;">[|jury] <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;">, and aggressive pretrial "law and motion" practice designed to result in a pretrial disposition (that is, <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none;">[|summary judgment] <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;">) or a settlement. U.S. courts pioneered the concept of the opt-out <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none;">[|class action] <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;">, by which the burden falls on class members to notify the court that they do not wish to be bound by the judgment, as opposed to opt-in class actions, where class members must join into the class. Another unique feature is the so-called <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none;">[|American Rule] <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> under which parties generally bear their own attorneys' fees (as opposed to the <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none;">[|English Rule] <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> of "loser pays"), though American legislators and courts have carved out numerous exceptions. <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-align: justify;">Substantive law comprises the actual "substance" of the law; that is, the law that defines legally enforceable rights and duties, and what wrongful acts amount to violations of those rights and duties. Because substantive law by definition is enormous, the following summary briefly covers only a few highlights of each of the major components of American substantive law. **<span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;">a) ****<span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Criminal law ** <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none;">[|Criminal law] <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> involves the <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none;">[|prosecution] <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> by the state of wrongful acts which are considered to be so serious that they are a breach of the sovereign's peace (and cannot be deterred or remedied by mere lawsuits between private parties). Generally, <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none;">[|crimes] <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> can result in <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none;">[|incarceration] <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;">, but torts (see below) cannot. The majority of the crimes committed in the United States are prosecuted and punished at the state level. Federal criminal law focuses on areas specifically relevant to the federal government like evading payment of federal income tax, mail theft, or physical attacks on federal officials, as well as interstate crimes like drug trafficking and wire fraud. <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;">All states have somewhat similar laws in regard to "higher crimes" (or <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none;">[|felonies] <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;">), such as <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none;">[|murder] <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> and <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none;">[|rape] <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;">, although penalties for these crimes may vary from state to state. <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none;">[|Capital punishment] <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> is permitted in some states but not others. <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none;">[|Three strikes laws] <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> in certain states impose harsh penalties on repeat offenders. <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Some states distinguish between two levels: felonies and <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none;">[|misdemeanors] <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> (minor crimes). Generally, most felony convictions result in lengthy <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none;">[|prison] <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> sentences as well as subsequent <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none;">[|probation] <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;">, large <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none;">[|fines] <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;">, and orders to pay <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none;">[|restitution] <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> directly to victims; while misdemeanors may lead to a year or less in jail and a substantial fine. To simplify the prosecution of traffic violations and other relatively minor crimes, some states have added a third level, <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none;">[|infractions] <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;">. These may result in fines and sometimes the loss of one's driver's license, but no jail time. <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;">For public welfare offenses where the state is punishing merely risky (as opposed to injurious) behavior, there is significant diversity across the various states. For example, punishments for <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none;">[|drunk driving] <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> varied greatly prior to 1990. State laws dealing with <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none;">[|drug crimes] <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> still vary widely, with some states treating possession of small amounts of drugs as a misdemeanor offense or as a medical issue and others categorizing the same offense as a serious <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none;">[|felony] <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;">. **<span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;">b) ****<span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Contract law ** <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none;">[|Contract law] <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> covers obligations established by agreement (express or implied) between private parties. Generally, contract law in transactions involving the sale of goods has become highly standardized nationwide as a result of the widespread adoption of the <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none;">[|Uniform Commercial Code] <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;">. However, there is still significant diversity in the interpretation of other kinds of contracts, depending upon the extent to which a given state has codified its common law of contracts or adopted portions of the <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none;">[|Restatement (Second) of Contracts] <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;">. <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Parties are permitted to agree to <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none;">[|arbitrate] <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> disputes arising from their contracts. Under the <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none;">[|Federal Arbitration Act] <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> (which has been interpreted to cover //all// contracts arising under federal or state law), arbitration clauses are generally enforceable unless the party resisting arbitration can show <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none;">[|unconscionability] <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> or <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none;">[|fraud] <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> or something else which undermines the entire contract. **<span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;">c) ****<span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Tort law ** <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none;">[|Tort law] <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> generally covers any civil action between private parties arising from wrongful acts which amount to a breach of general obligations imposed by law and not by contract.   <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Tort law covers the entire imaginable spectrum of wrongs which humans can inflict upon each other, and of course, partially overlaps with wrongs also punishable by criminal law. Although the <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none;">[|American Law Institute] <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> has attempted to standardize tort law through the development of several versions of the Restatement of Torts, many states have chosen to adopt only certain sections of the Restatements and to reject others. Thus, because of its immense size and diversity, American tort law cannot be easily summarized. <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;">For example, a few jurisdictions allow actions for <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none;">[|negligent infliction of emotional distress] <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> even in the absence of physical injury to the plaintiff, but most do not. For any particular tort, states differ on the causes of action, types and scope of remedies, statutes of limitations, and the amount of specificity with which one must plead the cause. With practically any aspect of tort law, there is a "majority rule" adhered to by most states, and one or more "minority rules." <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Notably, the most broadly influential innovation of 20th century American tort law was the rule of <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none;">[|strict liability] <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> for <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none;">[|defective products] <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;">, which originated with judicial glosses on the law of <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none;">[|warranty] <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;">. In 1963, <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none;">[|Roger J. Traynor] <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> of the <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none;">[|Supreme Court of California] <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> threw away <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none;">[|legal fictions] <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> based on warranties and imposed strict liability for defective products as a matter of <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none;">[|public policy] <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> in the landmark case of //Greenman v. Yuba Power Products//. [|[56]]<span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> The American Law Institute subsequently adopted a slightly different version of the //Greenman// rule in Section 402A of the //Restatement (Second) of Torts//, which was published in 1964 and was very influential throughout the United States. [|[57]]<span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> Outside the U.S., the rule was adopted by the European Economic Community in the Product Liability Directive of July 1985, [|[58]]<span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> by Australia in July 1992, [|[59]]<span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> and by Japan in June 1994. [|[60]] <span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;">By the 1990s, the avalanche of American cases resulting from //Greenman// and Section 402A had become so complicated that another restatement was needed, which occurred with the 1997 publication of the //Restatement (Third) of Torts: Products Liability//. [|[61]]
 * 1) **<span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Federal law **
 * 1) **<span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;">State law **
 * 1) **<span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Local law **
 * 1) **<span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Procedural law **
 * 1) **<span style="font-family: 'Footlight MT Light','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Substantive law **